Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN) is a
group of
beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of
bacterial
infections caused by susceptible, usually
Gram-positive, organisms. “Penicillin” is also the
informal name of a specific member of the penicillin group
Penam Skeleton, which has the molecular formula R-C9H11N2O4S,
where R is a variable
side chain.
Kansas State University, Executive
Summary of Surface Study
...
Methicillin Resistant
Staphylococcus ...
The increasing problem of drug-resistant microbes is particularly
important where there is impaired immune response, either as a
consequence of immunosuppressant therapy or an immunodeficient
syndrome. Major outbreaks of staphylococcal and enterococcal
infection owing to strains resistant to a wide range of chemotherapeutic
agents have been reported. Whilst vancomycin and the related
glycopeptide antibiotic teicoplanin provide an effective option
in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA), vancomycin-resistant strains of Enterococcus faecalis
and Enterococcus faecium are now often a cause of nosocomial*
infection.
Tennessee-based EcoQuest International, Inc., has developed several air
purification technologies that have been shown in peer-reviewed studies to
have a 99.99% effectiveness against Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and other
microbes on environmental surfaces. This technology is installed in air duct
systems and also in portable room units.
* nos·o·co·mi·al - 
hear
it again - nä-sə-ˈkō-mē-əl
- acquired or occurring in a hospital or care facility <nosocomial
infection>
hear
it again - nä-sə-ˈkō-mē-əl
- acquired or occurring in a hospital or care facility <nosocomial
infection>
--- --- ---
Executive Summary
Kansas State University Testing
Biological Reduction through Photocatalysis and Ozone
Kansas State University Testing
Biological Reduction through Photocatalysis and Ozone
Summary:
Testing has been performed at the Kansas State Food Science Institute in the Department of Animal Sciences & Industry, Kansas State University in Manhattan Kansas under the direction of Dr. James Marsden, Regent's Distinguished Professor of Meat Science. Kansas State is one of America's foremost Universities for animal science and Dr. Marsden is known around the world as one of the top researchers and experts in food safety.
Ten of the most deadly forms of mold, fungi, bacteria and virus were subjected to a new and innovative Photocatalytic Reactor called Radiant Catalytic Ionization (RCI). These ten organisms were placed on a piece of stainless steel inside a test chamber and the RCI cell was turned on for 24 hours. Test results showed a 24-hour reduction ranging from 96.4% to 100%.
This testing validates the effectiveness and speed which RCI is able to treat the indoor environment using a natural process at safe levels of oxidation.
Discussion:
With most indoor airborne contaminants originating on surfaces, any efforts
to control biological contamination in the indoor environment must address
surfaces. Microorganisms such as Mold, Bacteria and Viruses thrive on
surfaces in the presence of moisture, and for this reason the food industry
has focused on controlling and eliminating pathogens in food contact areas.
Dr. Marsden has dedicated his life to improving food safety through
understanding and controlling the spread of biological contamination.
Marsden's research has recently focused on the use of advanced
photocatalysis, a technology which develops oxidizers which actively reduce
airborne and surface
pathogens.
pathogens.
Ten microorganisms were chosen for analysis. Three samples of each microorganism were prepared and placed on a stainless steel surface, allowing analysis at 2 hours, 6 hours and 24 hours of exposure. The test organisms included:
• Staph (Staphylococcus aureus)
• MRSA (Methycillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus)
• E-Coli (Escherichia coli)
• Anthrax family (Bacillus spp.)
• Strep (Streptococcus spp.)
• Pseudomonas aureuginos
• Listeria monocytogenes
• Candida albicans
• Black Mold (Stachybotrys chartarum)
• Avian Influenza H5N8
These organisms were subjected to air which was circulating through a
proprietary photo catalytic reactor called Radiant Catalytic Ionization or
RCI.
Multiple parameters were monitored including temperature and humidity. The UV Lamp in the photo catalytic cell was positioned in the supply duct to insure there was no effect from the UVGI produced by the lamp. Understanding that Ozone is one of the oxidizers produced in this Photocatalytic process and the health concerns from exposure to excessive levels of ozone, the ozone level was monitored and never exceeded 20 parts per billion (.02 ppm), well below EPA maximum level (.05 ppm) for continuous exposure.
In addition to the test chamber treated with RCI and the corona discharge ozone generator, a control chamber was set up to account for natural decay of the test organisms. Because some biological pathogens die-off on their own when exposed to air, any reputable study must account for such reductions. The test results shown in the report are the reductions in viable organisms with respect to the control sample.
The test results were astounding. After 24 hours of exposure the nine organism's viability was reduced between 96.4% and 100%. It should be noted that the double blind study accounted for natural decay.
What was even more surprising to the researchers was how fast RCI reduced
the pathogens. At the 2-hour sample the average reduction was well over 80%.
At the 6-hour sample the average reduction was well over 90%.
An additional test was performed using a corona discharge ozone generator (Breeze AT) against Candida albicans at 50 parts per billion (the level deemed safe by the US EPA, OSHA and other international health & safety organizations). This test showed the ability of safe levels of ozone to reduce microbial contamination. It should be noted that although results showed the effectiveness of this safe level of ozone, it also showed that ozone alone is not as effective as the multiple oxidizers produced by the advanced Photocatalytic Oxidation device called RCI.
One of the multiple oxidizers RCI produces is ozone but at an ozone level
two to five times lower than using ozone alone.
This test report has been peer reviewed and is scheduled for publication.
1 - Efficacy of EcoQuest Radiant Catalytic Ionization Cell and Breeze AT Ozone Generator
at Reducing Microbial Populations on Stainless Steel Surfaces
M. T. Ortega, L. J. Franken, P. R. Hatesohl, and J. L. Marsden
Department of Animal Sciences & Industry
K-State Food Science Institute
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506
ABSTRACT
The improvement of disinfection technology for contact surfaces in health care, food processing, schools, and residential environments is critical for the control and prevention of disease causing microorganisms. Historically, both ozone and peroxide based technologies have been used as disinfectants in numerous applications. This study determined the potential use of oxidative gases, including ozone and peroxide
generated by the EcoQuest Radiant Catalytic Ionization Cell (RCI) for the inactivation of Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus globigii, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and Stachybotrys chartarum on stainless-steel surfaces. In addition, the EcoQuest Breeze AT Ozone generator was evaluated for the inactivation of C. albicans and S. chartarum on stainless steel surfaces at diverse contact times in a controlled airflow cabinet.
Results showed that oxidative gases produced by the Radiant Catalytic Ionization Cell reduced all microorganisms tested by at least 90% after 24 hour exposure on stainless steel surfaces. The Radiant Catalytic Ionization Cell was more effective at reducing microbial counts for shorter exposure times than was the Breeze AT Ozone Generator.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The purpose of this paper is to give an accurate evaluation of the RCI
technology for disinfection of environmental contact surfaces. When used
properly and safely, this technology can provide a cost-effective means for
eliminating environmental microorganism such as Bacillus globigii,
Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Stachybotrys chartarum, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Listeria
monocytogenes in industries such as food processing and
health care.
health care.
INTRODUCTION
Microbial contamination of indoor air represents a major public health
problem and a potential source for sick-building-syndrome. For example,
certain species of mold and bacteria may cause health concerns in homes,
schools, offices, and health care facilities (Hota, 2004). In addition to
being unattractive to see and smell, mold also gives off spores and
mycotoxins that cause irritation, allergic reactions, or disease in
immune-compromised individuals (Bahnfleth et al., 2005).
immune-compromised individuals (Bahnfleth et al., 2005).
The term nosocomial infection refers to an infection that is acquired in the hospital or a health care facility (Chotani, Roghmann, & Perl, 2004). Environmental contamination - 2 - has produced devastating consequences in these facilities, resulting in the morbidity and mortality of tens of thousands of patients every year. Persons who visit hospitals, nursing homes, or health clinics have a risk of acquiring an infection as a result of their stay (Tilton, 2003). It is estimated that approximately one patient in ten acquires an infection as a result of an extended visit in one of these health care facilities (Tilton,
2003). Nosocomial acquired infections are responsible for approximately 100,000 deaths with an annual cost approaching $29 billion (Kohn, Corrigan, & Donaldson, 1999).
Nosocomial infections have a number of potential causes that promote the spread of disease. Common health care surfaces such as countertops, bedding, bedpans, and medical devices can all be used to transmit and spread disease from one person to another (Hota, 2004). Under hectic and stressful conditions, these surfaces can become easily contaminated, often by overworked employees. Cutbacks in staffing at health care facilities due to budget constraints, has placed a greater burden on health care
facilities to find ways to remediate contaminates with limited resources (Chotani et al., 2004). Older and poorly designed buildings may harbor contaminates that are not easily eliminated using conventional disinfection methods. Studies have shown that microorganisms such as Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans survive in environmental reservoirs found in health care facilities (Hota, 2004).
Food and beverage industries face multiple issues when it comes to producing
a safe, wholesome product. Food pathogens such as E. coli 0157:H7, Listeria
moncytogenes, and Salmonella spp. have been a growing concern throughout the
years. In addition, processors are concerned about spoilage microorganisms
which shorten shelf life and cost companies millions of dollars every year
in spoiled products. The areas impacted include the meat, seafood, poultry,
produce, baking, canning, and dairy industries. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) has estimated the costs associated with food borne
illness to be about $2.3 billion and $4.6 billion a year for children and
adults, respectively (USDA, 2001). In addition to the billions of dollars
lost every year due to spoiled product, which must be disposed or sold as a
lesser valued product. Reducing pathogens and additional microbial
contamination on food contact surfaces decreases
cross-contamination, improving the quality and shelf life of food products (Kusumaningrum et al. 2003). Disinfection and microbiological control measures that efficiently eliminate or diminish microbial counts from every area of the food plants are an unquestionable industry investment.
cross-contamination, improving the quality and shelf life of food products (Kusumaningrum et al. 2003). Disinfection and microbiological control measures that efficiently eliminate or diminish microbial counts from every area of the food plants are an unquestionable industry investment.
As a disinfectant, ozone has a remarkable ability to oxidize substances.
When ozone comes in contact with organic compounds or bacteria, the extra
atom of oxygen destroys the contaminant by oxidation. Ozone decomposes to
oxygen after being used, so no harmful by-products result (Purofirst, 2001).
Ozone’s oxidation potential is higher than chlorine, 2.07 and 1.36,
respectively. Ozone disinfects substances such as water three to four times
more effectively. As it oxidizes a substance, ozone will literally destroy
the substance’s molecule leaving virtually no residue behind (Fink, 1994).
Recent government approval of ozone for use with foods and food contact surfaces has opened the door to many more exciting possibilities for this technology. In June 2001, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of ozone as a sanitizer for - 3 - food contact surfaces and for direct application on food products (FDA, 2001; FDA, 2003). Previously, chlorine was the most widely used sanitizer in the food industry despite the fact that ozone may be more effective for disinfection of surfaces than
chlorine. Chlorine is a common disinfect used in meat processing and is effective and safe when used at proper concentrations. Chlorine, also known by its chemical name, sodium hypochlorite, is a halogen-based chemical that is corrosive to stainless steel and other metals used to make food-processing equipment.
Chlorine can be a significant health hazard to workers when mixed in small
amounts with ammonia or acid
cleaners producing toxic chlorine gas that can cause massive cellular damage to the exposed nasal passages, trachea, and lungs (Russell et al. 2006; Martin et al. 2003; Gunnarsson et al. 1998). In food plants chlorine may react with meat forming highly toxic and carcinogen compounds called tri-halomethanes (THMs) rendering them lesser quality products (Cunningham & Lawrence, 1977). It also can result in the production of chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and chloromethane. On the other hand, ozone does
not leave any trace of residual product upon its oxidative reaction.
cleaners producing toxic chlorine gas that can cause massive cellular damage to the exposed nasal passages, trachea, and lungs (Russell et al. 2006; Martin et al. 2003; Gunnarsson et al. 1998). In food plants chlorine may react with meat forming highly toxic and carcinogen compounds called tri-halomethanes (THMs) rendering them lesser quality products (Cunningham & Lawrence, 1977). It also can result in the production of chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and chloromethane. On the other hand, ozone does
not leave any trace of residual product upon its oxidative reaction.
An important advantage of ozone use in food processing is that the product
can still be called organic. An organic sanitizer must be registered as food
contact surface sanitizer with the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). Ozone has FDA approval for its use as sanitizer for food contact
surfaces, as well as for direct application on food products.
The use of ozone in food processing has become widely accepted in recent years and its uses have surpassed surface applications. The FDA (2004) stated, “ozone is a substance that can reduce levels of harmful microorganisms, including pathogenic E. coli strains and Cryptosporidium, in juice. Ozone is approved as a food additive that may be safely used as an antimicrobial agent in the treatment, storage, and processing of certain foods under the conditions of use prescribed in 21 CFR 173.368.”
It was the main aim of this study to evaluate the application of oxidative
gases, including low levels of ozone generated by the EcoQuest Radiant
Catalytic Ionization cell and the EcoQuest Breeze AT Ozone generator on
stainless-steel surfaces against environmental microorganisms such as
Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pneumonia,
Pseudonomas aeruginosa, Bacilus globigii., Staphylococcus aureus, Candida
albicans, and Stachybotrys chartarum on stainless steel surfaces.
MATERIALS AND METHODS.
MATERIALS AND METHODS.
Preparation of Cultures:
The following bacteria and fungi cultures were used for the study; Bacillus
globigii (ATCC # 31028, 49822, 49760), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC # 10832D,
25178, 11987), Candida albicans (ATCC # 96108, 96114, 96351), Stachybotrys
chartarum (ATCC # 18843, 26303, 9182), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC # 12121,
23315, 260), Escherichia coli (ATCC # 27214, 19110, 67053), Streptococcus
pneumoniae (ATCC # 27945, 29514, 10782), Staphylococcus aureus –
Methicillin-resistant (ATCC# 33591).
Cultures were revived using ATCC recommended instructions. Listeria
monocytogenes (KSU # 56 and 70).
- 4 - Bacterial, yeast and mold species were independently grown in Tripticase Soy Broth (TSB; Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI) and YM broth (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI), respectively to mid-exponential phase followed by a wash and re-suspension in 0.1% peptone water. The microbial cultures were combined by specie type to ca. 108 CFU/ml.
- 4 - Bacterial, yeast and mold species were independently grown in Tripticase Soy Broth (TSB; Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI) and YM broth (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI), respectively to mid-exponential phase followed by a wash and re-suspension in 0.1% peptone water. The microbial cultures were combined by specie type to ca. 108 CFU/ml.
Preparation of Samples and Treatment:
The microbial species used to validate the ozone generators were tested as
microbial cocktails inoculated onto 6.3 x 1.8 cm, #8 finish stainless-steel
coupons (17.64 cm2 double sided area). Four stainless steel coupons were
dipped per microbial inoculum and vortexed 15 seconds, optimizing microbial
dispersion. Binder clips (Universal Brand, Des Plaines, IL), sterilized by
autoclaving, were used to hang each stainless
steel coupon from a cooling rack for 1 h until dryness in a laminar flow biohazard hood.
steel coupon from a cooling rack for 1 h until dryness in a laminar flow biohazard hood.
The initial microbiological populations attached to the stainless steel coupons were in the range of 105 to 106 CFU/cm2. The inoculated stainless steel coupons were transferred to a controlled airflow test cabinet (Mini-Environmental Enclosure, Terra Universal, Anaheim, CA) at 26°C, 46 % relative humidity (ambient conditions), and treated using the EcoQuest Radiant Catalytic Ionization Cell for 0, 2, 6, and 24 hours.
The EcoQuest Breeze AT Ozone generator was evaluated separately for treatment periods of 0, 2, 6 and 24 hours. During the evaluation of the EcoQuest Ozone Breeze AT Ozone generator, ozone levels were monitored using a Model 500, Aeroqual (New Zealand). The ozone levels in the chamber during treatment with the EcoQuest Ozone Breeze AT Ozone generator were maintained at 0.02 ppm. Non-treated inoculated coupons were evaluated after 0 h and 24 h as negative controls.
Sampling:
At the end of the ozone contact time the coupons were placed into 30 ml of
0.1% peptone water and vortexed for 30 sec; the samples were serially
diluted and plated on Tripticase Soy Agar (TSA; Difco Laboratories, Detroit,
MI) for bacteria recovery. Yeast and mold cultures were plated on Potato
Dextrose Agar (PDA; Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI) and Cornmeal Agar (CMA,
Difco Laboratories), respectively. The colonyforming units per square
centimeter (CFU/cm2) were estimated after 24h (35oC) or 5 days (30oC) of
incubation for bacteria or yeast and mold, respectively.
RESULTS
Surface testing to evaluate non-treated control counts are showed in figure
1. Microbial reductions on negative controls after 24 h for Staphylococcus
aureus were 0.68 log CFU/cm2, Escherichia coli (0.27 log CFU/cm2), Bacillus
spp. (0.35 log CFU/cm2), Staphylococcus aureus (0.47 log CFU/cm2),
Streptococcus spp. (0.31 log CFU/cm2), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (0.52 log CFU/cm2),
Listeria monocytogenes (0.39 log CFU/cm2), Candida albicans (0.45 log CFU/cm2),
and S. chartarum (0.30 log CFU/cm2).
Reductions on non-treated controls after 24 h ranged from 0.3 to 0.6 log CFU/cm2. - 5 - Reductions in microbial counts on #8 finish stainless steel coupons produced by the EcoQuest Radiant Catalytic Ionization Cell after 0, 2, 6, and 24 h exposures are presented in figure 2. Exposure to ozone levels of 0.02 ppm reduced all microbial populations tested by at least 0.7 log CFU/cm2 in all microorganisms tested after just 2 hours. Longer exposure times resulted in greater reductions with the greatest
reductions found after 24 h exposure. The microbial total reduction mean counts after 24 h exposure for Staphylococcus aureus were 1.17 log CFU/cm2, Escherichia coli (1.53 log CFU/cm2), Bacillus spp. (2.02 log CFU/cm2), Staphylococcus aureus - Methicillian-resistant (2.50 log CFU/cm2), Streptococcus spp. (1.33 log CFU/cm2), Pseudonomas aeruginosa (1.48 log CFU/cm2), Listeria monocytogenes (2.35 log
CFU/cm2), Candida albicans (2.75 log CFU/cm2), and S. chartarum (3.16 log CFU/cm2).
Reductions were calculated by taking 0 h - 24 h Counts + Reduction after 24 h negative controls. Results of microorganisms tested against the EcoQuest Breeze AT Ozone generator are shown in figure 3. Exposure to ozone levels of 0.02 ppm resulted in reductions of at least 0.2 and 0.4 log CFU/cm2 after 2 and 6 hours of ozone exposure. After 24 h of exposure (calculated as described above), the C. albicans and S. chartarum reduction means were 1.02 and 1.01 log CFU/cm2, respectively.
DISCUSSION
Oxidative gases such as ozone have been used by industry for many years and
in numerous applications such as odor control, water purification, and as a
disinfectant. This is do to the fact that ozone can oxidize organic
substances such as bacteria and mildew, sterilize the air, and destroy odors
and toxic fumes (Mork, 1993). An area where ozone technology may be utilized
more in the future is in removing environmental contaminates. It has been
reported that ozone levels of less then 9 ppm is all that is
needed to remediate sick buildings or for professional disinfection (Khurana, 2003). In this study levels of 0.02 ppm and less were found to have an affect at reducing populations of environmental microorganisms.
needed to remediate sick buildings or for professional disinfection (Khurana, 2003). In this study levels of 0.02 ppm and less were found to have an affect at reducing populations of environmental microorganisms.
The application of this type of technology may be most beneficial in areas
where environmental contamination is of growing concern such as in health
care. Fear of nosocomial infection in chronic care facilities is a problem
due to the extended time patients are exposed to the risk of infection. The
anticipated increase in the elderly population in the next several decades
makes prevention of infection in long-term care facilities a priority
(Nicolle, 2001).
Ozone applied in the food industry has proven to be a powerful,
broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent that is effective against bacteria,
fungi, viruses, protozoa, and bacterial and fungal spores. A study by Kim et
al (1999) found that an ozone rinse of just 1.3 ppm for 5 minutes produced a
greater than 99.9% reduction in psychrotrophic and mesophillic bacteria on
lettuce. The ozone technology evaluated in this study would give the
processors a resource for controlling environmental contaminates, adding to
their overall sanitation program. - 6 - To our knowledge it is the first
time a study has been conducted to test microbial reductions in stainless
steel surfaces by exposure to oxidative gases and gaseous ozone. In this
study a low concentration of ozone (0.02 ppm) reduced all microorganisms
tested by at least 90% after 24 hr exposure on stainless-steel surfaces.
Short exposure times (2 h) to ozone levels of 0.02 ppm reduced all microbial populations tested by at least 0.7 log CFU/cm2 in all microorganisms tested. It has been reported that the anti-microbial activity of ozone is based on its strong oxidizing effect, which damage the cell membrane (Pope et al., 1984). Ozone kills bacteria within a few seconds by a process known as cell lysing. Ozone molecularly ruptures the cellular membrane, disperses the cell's cytoplasm and makes microbial survival impossible. Because of this action, microorganisms cannot develop ozone resistant strains, eliminating the need to change biocides periodically (Pope et al., 1984).
The EcoQuest Radiant Catalytic Ionization Cell (RCI) and EcoQuest Breeze AT Ozone generators reduced microbial populations on stainless steel surfaces within 2 h under ambient conditions, with greater reductions associated with longer exposure times. The RCI Cell was more effective than the Breeze AT Ozone Generator at reducing microbiological populations at shorter exposure times of 2 and 6 hours. This study demonstrated that the low levels of oxidative gases produced by the RCI Cell have the potential to be an effective surface disinfectant tool for use in food processing, sick building remediation, and health care applications.
REFERENCES
1. BAHNFELTH, W. P. & KOWALSKI, W. J. 2005. Indoor-air Quality: Issues and resolutions. HPAC Engineering: 6-16.
2. CHOTANI, R. A., ROGHMANN, M., & PERL, T. M. 2004. Nosocomial infections. In N.M.H.Graham, C. Masters, &. K.E.Nelson, (Eds.). Infectious disease epidemiology: Theory and practice. (pp655-673). London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
3. CUNNINGHAM, H. M. and LAWRENCE, G. A. 1977. Effect of exposure of meat and poultry to chlorinated water on the retention of chlorinated compounds and water. Journal of Food Science, 42(6), 1504-1505, 1509.
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6. HOTA, B. 2004. Contamination, disinfection, and cross-colonization: Are hospital surfaces reservoirs for nosocomial infection? Clinical Infectious Diseases. 39: 1182-1189.
7. KHURANA, A. 2003. Ozone treatment for prevention of microbial growth in air conditioning systems. Masters theses, University of Florida.
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http://www.nap.edu/books/0309068371/html/
10. KUSUMANINGRUM, H.D. PALTINAITE, R. KOOMEN, A.J. HAZELEGER, W.C. ROMBOUTS, F.M. and BEUMER, R.R. 2003. Tolerance of Salmonella Enteritidis and Staphylococcus aureus to surface cleaning and household bleach. J Food Prot. 66(12):2289-2295.
11. MARTIN, J.G. CAMPBELL, H.R. IIJIMA, H. GAUTRIN, D. MALO, J.L. EIDELMAN, H. HAMID, Q. and MAGHNI, K. 2003. Chlorine-induced injury to the airways in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 168(5):568-574.
12. MORK, D. D. 1993. Removing sulfide with ozone. Water Contamination & Purification. 34-37.
13. NICOLLE, L. E. 2001. Preventing Infections in Non-Hospital Settings: Long-Term Care. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 7(2): 205-207.
14. POPE, D. H. EICHLER, L. W. COATES, T.F. KRAMER, J. F. and SORACCO, R. J. 1984. The effect of ozone on Legionella pneumophila and other bacterial populations in cooling towers. Current Microbiology, 10(2):89-94.
15. Purofirst. 2000. Ozone. 411 Information Please: Technical data for fire, smoke, and water damage restoration & reconstruction, 8.
16. RUSSELL, D. BLAIN, P.G. and RICE, P. 2006. Clinical management of casualties exposed to lung damaging agents: a critical review. Emerg Med J. 6:421-424.
17. TILTON, D. 2003. Nosocomial infections: diseases from within our doors. Retrieved May 15, 2005 from http://www.nursingceu.com/NCEU/courses/nosocomial/
18. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE [USDA]. 2001. Children and microbial food borne illnesses. Retrieved October 27, 2006. From http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/FoodReview/May2001/FRV24I2f.pdf
19. U.S. FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION [FDA]. 2004. Recommendations to processors of apple juice or cider on the use of ozone for pathogen reduction purposes. Retrieved July 27, 2005 From
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/juicgu13.html.
20. U.S. FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION [FDA]. 2003. Food and drugs. Retrieved October 27, 2006. From http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/FCF173.html
21. U.S. FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION [FDA]. 2001. Food ingredients and packing. Retrieved October 27, 2006. From http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/opaap01.html - 8 - FIGURE 1. MICROBIAL SURVIVAL AFTER 24 H INOCULATION ON STAINLESS STEEL COUPONS - 9 - FIGURE 2. DECONTAMINATION OF HIGHLY POLISHED STAINLESS STEEL SURFACES USING THE ECOQUEST RADIANT CATALITIC IONIZATION CELL - 10 - FIGURE 3. OZONE DECONTAMINATION ON HIGHLY POLISHED STAINLESS STEEL SURFACES USING THE ECOQUEST BREEZE AT OZONE GENERATOR
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Abstract of Chicago Tribune article...
This article may be ordered for a small fee. Go to:
From a study published by CDC researchers in June 2005 report 126,000 patients contract MRSA infections annually. This (NEW ESTIMATE) is derived by applying infection rates to the number of people hospitalized in the U.S. in 2005. 1.2 million. Note: Hospital-only infections. Sources: Emerging Infectious Diseases, June 2005 study; Association for Professionals in Infection Control & Epidemiology Chicago Tribune Graphic: About MRSA infections. WHAT IS IT? Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are strains of staph bacteria that have mutated to become resistant to common antiobiotics such as penicillin. WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE? Common signs are red or swollen boils, abcesses and skin lesions. HOW IS IT ACQUIRED? Physical contact with infected patients or contaminated surfaces and medical devices. HOW CAN I PROTECT MYSELF? Clean hands regularly. Keep wounds bandaged. Do not share towels or razors. Sources: CDC; Dr. Barry Farr, professor emeritus, University of Virginia. Chicago Tribune.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), also known as oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ORSA), multiple-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, CA-MRSA (community-acquired MRSA) and HA-MRSA (hospital-acquired MRSA), is a biological agent responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. (MSSA is Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus.) MRSA is a variation of Staphylococcus aureus, a common bacterium, which has evolved the ability to survive treatment with beta-lactam antibiotics, including penicillin and methicillin. The organism is especially troublesome in hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections. In hospitals, patients may be found who have open wounds and weakened immune systems and who thus are greatly at risk for infection. Hospital staff who do not follow proper sanitary procedures may inadvertently transfer bacterial colonies from patient to patient. MRSA was discovered in 1961 in the UK, but it is now found worldwide. MRSA is popularly termed (in the press) a superbug.
n
os·o·co·mi·al,
adjective: acquired
or occurring in a hospital <nosocomial
infection>